What are Fallacies?
A fallacy is a flaw in the logical structure of an argument — it makes reasoning appear valid or persuasive when it actually isn’t. Fallacies are common vulnerabilities in human thinking; they may be unconscious cognitive errors or deliberately used to mislead.Recognizing fallacies has two payoffs: your own arguments become more rigorous, and you become harder to manipulate with bad arguments.This category covers 35 core fallacies, organized into four groups:
- Structural Fallacies: flaws in the logical architecture of arguments
- Appeal Fallacies: replacing logic with non-rational appeals (authority, emotion, etc.)
- Causal & Inductive Fallacies: errors in causal reasoning and data inference
- Other Common Fallacies: pervasive reasoning errors that resist neat categorization
Structural Fallacies
Straw Man
Misrepresent an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack
Ad Hominem
Attack the person making an argument rather than the argument itself
Circular Reasoning
Use the conclusion as a premise to prove the conclusion
False Dilemma
Present only two options when more actually exist
Slippery Slope
Claim that one small step inevitably leads to extreme consequences
Hasty Generalization
Draw an overly broad conclusion from a small or unrepresentative sample
Composition Fallacy
Assume what is true of the parts must be true of the whole
Division Fallacy
Assume what is true of the whole must be true of every part
Equivocation
Use a single word with two different meanings within the same argument
Middle Ground Fallacy
Assume the truth must lie between two opposing positions
Burden of Proof
Shift the responsibility of disproof onto the person who challenges a claim
Loaded Question
Embed an unproven assumption inside a question
Appeal Fallacies
Appeal to Authority
“An authority figure says so, therefore it’s true”
Appeal to Emotion
Use emotional manipulation instead of logical argument
Appeal to Tradition
“We’ve always done it this way, so it must be right”
Appeal to Nature
“It’s natural, therefore it’s good”
Appeal to Ignorance
“It hasn’t been disproven, therefore it must be true”
Appeal to Popularity
“Most people believe it, therefore it’s true”
Tu Quoque
Deflect criticism by pointing out the critic’s inconsistency
Genetic Fallacy
Judge an argument by its origin rather than its content
Causal & Inductive Fallacies
Post Hoc Fallacy
B followed A, therefore A caused B
Correlation ≠ Causation
Two things happening together doesn’t mean one causes the other
False Cause
Misidentify the actual cause of an event
Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy
Shoot first, draw the target after — cherry-pick data that fits your conclusion
Gambler's Fallacy
Believe that past random events influence future probabilities
Survivorship Bias Fallacy
Draw conclusions from only successful cases, ignoring failures
Anecdotal Fallacy
Substitute personal experience for rigorous evidence
Red Herring
Introduce an irrelevant topic to distract from the real issue
Other Common Fallacies
No True Scotsman
Redefine criteria to exclude inconvenient counterexamples
Moving the Goalposts
Change the standard of proof after it has already been met
Nirvana Fallacy
Reject a practical solution because it isn’t perfect
False Equivalence
Treat fundamentally different things as though they are equivalent
Moral Equivalence
Draw a false moral parallel between significantly different actions
Kettle Logic
Deploy multiple, mutually contradictory defenses of the same position
Reification Fallacy
Treat an abstract concept as though it were a concrete, tangible entity